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Tuesday, April 24, 2012
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Glossary : American Structuralism
Glossary
B: inside speakers
A: outisde speakers
C: speech
Mere: Is a syntcategorematic expression: it lacks
both sense and reference; is not quantifiable, and does not function as subject
or predicate in falsifiable assertions. It is used to inform about attitudes,
not facts.
Objectivity: It refers to the connection between the
outside speakers, inside speakers and the speech.
Subjective: The connection is only between inside
speakers and speech, excluding the outside speakers.
Mentalism: It assumes that there are factors in mental
operations inside speakers exempt from physical laws in the empirical realm
outside speakers. However inside speaker was affected by outside speaker, this
precluded physical determination of inherited language conventions speech by
the physical constitution of outside speakers. It opposes: wholes or parts to
material and formal principles, mind to brain, functions of the mind to triggering
of the nervous system, understanding to experiencing, deciding to reacting,
preferring to being reinforced, speaking to uttering, heroism or insanity to
environmental conditioning.
It is being as dualistic because it
recognizes two kinds (mental and material) of data, experience, perception,
insight, causality, evidence, explanation, study goals and methods of study.
Mechanism: Takes it for granted that there is a casual continuity from
outside speakers, through inside speakers to speech.
Behaviorism: It offered and objective approach. It
assumed the fundamental identity of physically determined speech-behavior with
any other kind of nonlinguistic outside speakers-behavior. But it was conceded
that while all inside speakers-behavior is the immediate consequence of outside
speakers´ factors, speech-behavior is mediate.
Behaviorism is monistic because it admits
only a single kind of data, erroneously distinguished by mentalists into
experience, insight, perception, causality, evidence, explanation, study goal
and method of study.
Language:
The totality of mutually
effective substitute responses.
Utterance:
An act of speech.
Speech-Community: It refers to any community which speaks
the same language
Language: The total of utterances that can be made in
a speech- community.
Same:
It refers to what is alike.
Forms: The vocal features common to same or partly
same utterances.
Meanings:
The corresponding
stimulus-reaction- features.
Morpheme: The minimum form.
Sememe: The meaning of the morpheme.
Free:
A form which may be an
utterance.
Bound: A form which is not free.
Word: A form which has more than one morpheme.
Phrase: A
non-minimum free form.
Formative: A bound form which is part of a word.
Phoneme:
A minimum same of vocal
feature.
Homonyms: Different forms which are alike as to
phonemes.
Constructional
meaning: the corresponding
stimulus- reaction features.
Morphologic
construction: The
construction of formatives in a word.
Syntactic
construction: The
construction of free forms in a phase.
Sentence:
a maximum construction in
any utterance.
Functional
meaning: the meaning of a
position.
Functions: positions in which a form occurs.
Form-class: All forms having the same functions.
Class-
meaning: the functional
meaning in which the forms of a form-class appear.
Categories:
the functional meanings and
class-meanings of a language.
Word-class: a form-class of words.
BEHAVIORAL CORRELATES FOR DETERMINING
TRADITIONAL CONCERNS ABOUT LANGUAGE:
Literary
standard: Is accessible
though general or personal educational effort transcends geographic and social
barriers, and is used on occasions described as formal.
Colloquial
standard: Is observed in
situations lacking formal behaviors among observably privileged classes within
a larger speck community.
Provincial
standard: Is observed among those remote geographically
from the formative environments of cultural centers.
Sub-standard
speech behavior: Is found among those who must interact daily
as peers with each other, but only occasionally, and as subordinates to the
privileged: their goals, satisfactions, reinforcement and opportunities differ
markedly from those of standards speakers.
Local
dialect: Is that of an interacting group with which
others have so little contact that dialect speakers are incomprehensible
without considerable attention.
Phonetics:
Is the branch of science
that deals with the sound-production. It provides an objective record of gross
acoustic features, only part of which are distinctive for particular languages,
while phonology or practical phonetics, determines which features are the
distinctive ones.
Acting
as though: An empirical procedure called the minimal pair
test.
Modification:
Presumes some standard from
which a departure is made, and the criteria for establishing the base can vary,
legitimately or inconsistently.
Duration:
The relative length of time
through which the vocal organs are kept in a position.
Stress:
It consists in greater
amplitude of sound waves and is produce by means of more energetic movements,
which can vary in the manner of application, or where increase of loudness sets
in.
Pitch:
Frequency of vibration in
the musical sound of the voice.
Palatalization:
During the production of a
consonant, the tongue and lips take up, as far as compatible with the main
features of the phoneme, the position of a front vowel.
Velarization:
Refers to the process in
which the tongue is retracted as far a back vowel-
Labialized:
When the lips are rounded
during the production of the consonants.
Labiovelarized:
The manner in which the
vocal organs pass from inactivity to the formation of a phoneme, or from the
formation of one phoneme to that of the next, or from the formation of a
phoneme to inactivity.
Reference:
Is the static relation,
dynamic process or action linking speech to outside speakers, mediated by
inside speakers.
Sense:
The state, process or
action within inside speakers, by which speech is related to outside speakers.
Referent:
Is the thing. A bit of
objective outside speakers or subjective inside speakers now regarded as part
of speech.
Denotation
Is reference.
Connotation:
Is a subjective or
socialized relation of the referent for speaker to other referents and
properties.
Meaning
of a linguistic form: The
situation in which the speaker utters it and the response which it calls forth
in the hearer.
Displaced
speech: A speaks of absent
apples to inside speaker who relay´s outside speaker´s message to speech.
Apple:
Lying, irony, jesting,
poetry, narrative fiction and the like.
Language:
Is the expression of ideas,
feelings, or volitions.
Hypostasis:
Is closely related to
quotation, the repetition of a speech, and like onomatopoeia, consists in
deviations from the ordinary tie-up of phonetic form with dictionary meaning,
which still shows considerable complexity.
Synchronic
linguistic description: Proceeds
on the counter-factual assumption of constant and stable forms paired with
meanings within an unchanging speech-community, signaled through linguistic
forms containing a discrete number of combinable phonemic contrasts.
Taxeme:
A simple feature of
grammatical arrangement.
Tagmemes:
Meaningful units of
grammatical form.
Episemes:
The meaning of tagmemes.
Sandhi:
Is the label for features
of modulation and phonetic modification important to many syntactic structures.
Endocentric:
When free forms combining
can be said to produce a resultant phrase, of which the form-class of one
member may be determinative of the phrase´s grammatical behavior.
Exocentric: When
the phrase pr construction does not follow the grammatical behavior of either
constituent.
American Structuralism
AMERICAN STRUCTURALISM
There was especially good reason to take this
point of view given the conditions in which American linguistics developed from
the end of the 19th century. There were hundreds of indigenous American Indian
languages that had never been previously described. Many of these were spoken
by only a handful of speakers and, if they were not recorded before they became
extinct, would be permanently inaccessible.
Under these circumstances, such linguists as Franz
Boas (died 1942) were less concerned with the construction of a general theory
of the structure of human language than they were with prescribing sound
methodological principles for the analysis of unfamiliar languages. They were
also fearful that the description of these languages would be distorted by
analyzing them in terms of categories derived from the analysis of the more
familiar Indo-European languages.
After Boas, the two most influential American
linguists were Edward Sapir (died 1939) and Leonard Bloomfield (died 1949).
Like his teacher Boas, Sapir was equally at home in anthropology and
linguistics, the alliance of which disciplines has endured to the present day
in many American universities. Boas and Sapir were both attracted by the
Humboldtian view of the relationship between language and thought, but it was
left to one of Sapir's pupils, Benjamin Lee Whorf, to present it in a
sufficiently challenging form to attract widespread scholarly attention. Since
the republication of Whorf's more important papers in 1956, the thesis that
language determines perception and thought has come to be known as the Whorfian
hypothesis.
Sapir's work has always held an attraction for the more anthropologically inclined American linguists. But it was Bloomfield who prepared the way for the later phase of what is now thought of as the most distinctive manifestation of American "structuralism." When he published his first book in 1914,Bloomfield Bloomfield Bloomfield
Sapir's work has always held an attraction for the more anthropologically inclined American linguists. But it was Bloomfield who prepared the way for the later phase of what is now thought of as the most distinctive manifestation of American "structuralism." When he published his first book in 1914,
Another characteristic feature, one that was to
be much criticized by Chomsky, was its attempt to formulate a set of
"discovery procedures"--procedures that could be applied more or less
mechanically to texts and could be guaranteed to yield an appropriate
phonological and grammatical description of the language of the texts.
Structuralism, in this narrower sense of the term, is represented, with
differences of emphasis or detail, in the major American textbooks published
during the 1950s.
NORTH
AMERICAN STRUCTURALISM CENTERS IN WHAT PEOPLE ACTUALLY SAY.
MAIN
TENETS
- Linguistic
is a descriptive science.
- the
primary form of the language is the spoken one.
- Every
language is a system on its own right.
- Language
is a system in which smaller units arrange systematically to form larger
ones
- Meaning
should not be part of linguistic analysis
- The
procedures to determine the units in language should be objective and
rigorous.
- Language
is observable speech, not knowledge.
Structuralism proposes the idea that many
phenomena do not occur in isolation, but instead occur in relation to each
other, and that all related phenomena are part of a whole with a definite, but
not necessarily defined, structure.
1.1 AMERICAN STRUCTURALISM : L. BLOOMFIELD
1.1.1.BEHAVIORISM AND SCIENCE
Behaviorism was a school of psychology. According to this school
science can only deal with physical facts. Statements must be based on these
physical characteristics. Thus, science must observe, describe physical facts
and induce descriptive generalizations.
1.1.2. LANGUAGE : STIMULUS AND RESPONSE
Human behaviour is studied in terms of stimulus and response,
consequently linguistic behaviour becomes also a pattern of stimulus and
response, where language plays a mediating role.
1.1.3. THE METHOD AND LIMITATIONS
Behaviorist linguists start their studies by recording speech, and
these samples will become the only basis for the study of language, in the form
of sphich corpus. Speech will be divided into sound segments and they will
observe these segments in their linguistic context. Finally, they will classify
those segments according to their distribution. However, this method made the
study of meaning very complex and probably outside the domain of linguistics,
and this is the main behaviorist limitation.
1.2. AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN STRUCTURALISM
American and European structuralism had the same objective:
describe and classify linguistic units, though they do not share the same
perspective. European structuralists deal with Saussure's notion of langue,
whereas Americans' perspective derived from the limitations of their
behaviorist method.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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